Evolution II

Is concerned with the mechanisms that cause allele frequencies to change from one generation to the next

The _ principle is the null model that provides the conceptual framework for populationgenetics

The Hardy-Weinberg principle shows that under simple assumptions, allele frequencies _

No _, no _, no _, no genetic _, and random _ are all assumptions of the Hardy-Weinberg principle

_ frequencies can be calculated from allele frequencies

When any of the four assumptions of the Hardy-Weinberg principle is violated, allele frequencies may _ across generations

The four mechanisms of evolution

_ mating does not cause allele frequencies to change and is thus not a mechanism of evolution, but it can alter _ frequencies

Selection occurs when individuals with different _ differ in their success at getting copies of their genes into future generations

Some patterns of selection tend to drive alleles to loss or _; other forms of selection maintain allelic _ in populations

Alone, mutation is a _ eovlutionary mechanism

In some cases, a steady supply of new mutant alleles can _ selection against those same alleles and thereby serve to hold frequencies at _

When allele frequencies do not vary from 1 generation to the next, a population is at _

Allele frequency is represented by the sum of the variables _ and _

p + q = 1 represents _

The expected genotype frequency is represented by _

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 represents _

Hardy-Weinberg can be thought of as the _ model for evolutionary change

With variable rates of mortality on difference phenotypes, the "_" assumption of Hardy-Weinberg is violated

Selection over many generations can result in substantial _ in allele frequencies

Allele frequency can be changed by _ or stay the same but no longer predict _

The rate of evolution is rapid when a recessive lethal allele is _

The selection coefficient is represented by the variable _

When selection favors heterozygotes, the rate of evolution is _, but slowed well before _

Heterozygote superiority is called _

Homozygote superiority is called _

In C2C3 compound chromosome mutants, heterozygotes are _

In _ chromosome mutants, heterozygotes are nonviable

When heterozygotes are favored, p & q reach _, the max mean fitness

In heterozygote inferiority, _ equilibrium results, and _ speciation may occur

In _-dependent selection, traits with lower frequency have _ fitness

Frequency-dependent selection results in fitness _ with each generation with the _ of the trait

Mutation can favor the increase of 1 allele over another; this is called the _ balance

A loss-of-function mutation of the _ gene can lead to cystic fibrosis infections

A _ mutation of the CFTR gene can lead to _ infections

The mutation rate of the CFTR gene is not high enough to maintain _ for resistance to typhoid fever from Salmonella typhii

Is the CCR5-delta32 gene likely to increase in frequency due to selection by HIV?

The movement of alleles between populations

The transfer of alleles from 1 gene pool to another

In which migration alters alleles & geno. frequency, random mating will restore HWE, and migration equalizes allele freq. between pops.

Banded water snakes are more heavily preyed upon on islands than unbanded, but there are more banded than expected; migration _s selection

Random changes in allele frequency without any adaptational purpose

Genetic drift violates Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium due to a _ population size

In which a new population is established, usually by a small number of individuals

A change in allele frequency that occurs after a founder event, due to genetic drift

Loss of _ can result from founder events

The size of a theoretical population that would lose heterozygosity at the same rate as an actual population

An effective population size is always _ than the actual population size

The fixation of a new mutation in a population

The _ theory states that advantageous mutations are very rare, most alleles are neutral, and rate of evolution = neutral mutation rate

The _ theory states that advantageous mutations are common, and rate of evolution = neutral mutation rate on advantageous alleles

Deleterious alleles appear and are eliminated by negative, or _ selection

Neutral mutations appear and are either _ or lost by chance

Advantageous mutations appear and are swept to _

Neutral theory notes that initial observations of change of amino acid seq. was _ through time, like a molecular _

Neutral theory notes that genetic drift _ at the level of DNA

Noncoding DNA has a _ rate of substitution

Pseudogenes have a _ rate of substitution

Synonymous rate of substitution is _ than the nonsynonymous rate of substitution

Neutral theory may be thought of as the _ model

Neutral theory's assumption about the number of mutations fixed by selection is _ with genetic drift

Neutral theory allows for test of selection on _ substitution

dN/dS < 1

dN/dS = 1

dN/dS > 1

The BRCA 1 locus is a gene associated with _

dN/dS for BRCA 1 locus is _ across mammals

The _ locus is a gene associated with breast cancer

The fact that BRCA 1 does not have equal dN/dS across mammal species suggests it is under _ selection

Neutral theory predicts the ratio of dN/dS for a locus should be _ through time

Neutral theory states that dN/dS between species is _ dN/dS within a species

Neutral theory ignores selective advantages that are _

Nonrandom usage of synonymous codons

Codon bias is _ in the highest expressed genes

When codon bias occurs, _ substitutions are not truly _

Nonrandom mating may also be called _

Nonrandom mating results in a change of _ frequency, but not _ frequency

In nonrandom mating, you cannot predict _ frequencies from _ frequencies

In nonrandom mating, heterozygotes decrease by _ each generation

When allele frequencies are different in the source population than in the recipient population, _ causes the recipient population to evolve

As a mechanism of evolution, migration tends to _ allele frequencies across populations

Genetic drift is more dramatic in _ populations

Over many generations, drift results in an inexorable loss of genetic _

If some of the alleles fixed by drift are deleterious, drift can result in a _ of the fitness of individuals in a population

The reduction in fitness caused by an increase in homozygosity due to inbreeding

Migration can sometimes restore lost genetic _, improving a population's chances for long-term _

When genotypes at one locus are nonrandomly associated with genotypes at the other, the loci are in _

Even under Hardy-Weinberg assumptions, chromosome frequencies _ across generations

Selection on one locus can alter allele frequencies at the other, and single-locus models may make _ predictions

When genotypes at one locus are independent of genotypes at the other locus, the loci are in _

Chromosome frequencies _ change across generations

Selection on one locus has no effect on allele or genotype _ at the other

In a random-mating population, linkage disequlibrium can be created by selection on _ genotypes, genetic _, and population _

Linkage disequilibrium is reduced by _ reproduction

Measurements of linkage disequilibrium are useful in inferring the _ of alleles

If an allele is in linkage disequilibrium with nearby neutral marker loci, we can infer that the allele is relatively _

If we have an estimate of the rate at which disequilibrium between allele and marker locus breaks down, we can estimate allele's _

If an allele is both young and present at high frequency, we can infer the allele has recently been _ by _ natural selection

Simple theoretical arguments suggest that asexual reproduction should sweep to _ in any population in which it appears

Empirical observation and experiments indicate that sex confers substantial _

When drift or selection has reduced the frequency of multilocus genotypes, sexual reproduction can be _, because it re-creates the missing _

The first step of speciation: _ of populations caused by _, _, or large-scale chromosome changes such as _

The second step of speciation: _ based on genetic _ or natural _

The third step of speciation: _ or _ of divergence upon _ contact

In some cases, selection for divergence is strong enough that populations can _ without physical _

It may be possible for sexual selection to cause genetic isolation or divergence in traits related to _

The formation of stable _ zones can lead to the creation of new species containing _ from each of the _ forms

The primary strategy in genetic analysis of speciation is to look for _ between _ or molecular markers and the _ of traits of new species

Asexual species produce _ offspring than sexual species

Sexual species produce more _ offspring than asexual species; with higher rates of _, and lower _

Selection in general _ recombination

As far as population genetics is concerned, reduction in _ is the only consequence of _ reproduction

A population in _ does not directly benefit from sexual reproduction

Creation of linkage _ is a force that _ reproduction is constantly _

Sexual reproduction "breaks" _

Mueller's ratchet: genetic load keeps _, population becomes less _ as it accumulates harmful _

The smallest individual evolutionary unit

Species form a _ for the spread of alleles

Speciation implies a lack of _ between populations

Species concept that focuses on the morphological differences between organisms

The morphological species concept can't detect _ species

Species concept that focuses on reproductive isolation

The biological species concept the _ definition of a species

The biological species concept can't be applied to _, organisms that reproduce _, and many plants that undergo _

Species concept that focuses on monophyly; requires a phylogeny to assess

The phylogenetic species concept looks at shared _ that is lost eventually due to _

The phylogenetic species concept is also called the _ species concept

The phylogenetic species concept examines phylogenies that begin with _ between members of a species, eventually moving to _

Using different maps of recombination between genes and phylogenies to delineate species boundaries

Among the major activities of evolutionary biology is analyzing the form and _ of organisms to determine whether and why traits are _

To establish that a trait is adaptive, researchers must formulate _ about how the trait is used and why it gives higher _

No hypothesis should be accepted simply because it is _

Controlled experiments examining an adaptation involve groups of organisms that are identical but for a single _ of interest

When recently diverged populations come back into contact

Secondary contact provides divergent populations with an opportunity to _

Selection that reduces the fitness of hybrids

Reinforcement results in mechanisms that prevent _

_ isolation: a form of reinforcement that mainly affects mate choice, genetic compatibility, or life history

_isolation results in sterile hybrid offspring

A region where interbreeding between two species occurs

Hybrid zones are the result of _ contact

A hybrid zone is _ if the hybrids are equally fit to their parents

A hybrid zone is _ if the hybrids are less fit than their parents

If hybrids are more fit than their parents, they will encompass a new _

An adaptation is a trait that increases _

An adaptation is a trait that _ fitness

Most interpretations of evolutionary adaptation are _

A common fallacy of adaptations: differences among populations of species are not always _

Not every adaptation will lead towards _, and evolutionary adaptation is always 1 _ behind

The adaptation of a trait that results in copying the morphology and/or behavior of another organism

Mimicry is the adaptation of a trait that results in copying the _ and/or _ of another organism

_ traits have larger trait value because they are inherited from a common ancestor

Individuals may be phenotypically _, so that genetically identical individuals reared in different environments have different phenotypes

The function of a particular trait may change over evolutionary time, and it may reflect a _ among competing environmental demands

Populations may lack the genetic _ required to become perfectly adapted to their environments

When selection at the organismal level is weak, selection at the level of cells or the _ within them can create _ traits

_ selection is differential reproductive success resulting from variation in matingsuccess

Often, but not always, it is _ whose reproductive success is limited by mating opportunities, and _ whose success is resource-limited

Members of the sex experiencing strong sexual selection compete by direct _, _ competition, _, or _

Members of the sex whose reproduction is limited by resources are choosy, with benefits like_, or better _ for their offspring, or _ bias

In plants, access to _ is sometimes more limiting to reproduction than _ production is

Individuals with the same genotypes can have different phenotypes in different environments. This is called _

Show genotypes' change in phenotype across a range of environments

The product of genotype interacting with the external environment

Phenotypic variation has a _ component which can be selected for or against

The energy and time expended in constructing offspring and caring for it

Eggs are relatively _ to produce, sperm and relatively _

Female reproductive success is usually limited by the amount of _ she can access, and thus the number of eggs she can produce

Male reproductive success is usually limited by the number of _

In _ competition, males engage in combat with one another

In _ competition, males advertise to attract a female to them

In species where one female can sire a clutch of offspring with more than one father, _ competition becomes important

Males in some species, such as lions, will engage in _ in order to make females sexually receptive again

_ is the cause of sexual selection

In species where males also contribute to parental investment, the males are also _

Behavior in which the fitness of both participants is increased

Behavior in which the actor pays a fitness cost, and the recipient benefits

Behavior in which the actor gains and the recipient loses

Behavior in which there are fitness costs for both actor and recipient (hard to document in natural systems)

The coefficient of relatedness, or probability that homologous alleles in 2 individuals are identical by descent

Rule stating that a gene for altruistic behavior will spread if Br - C > 0

Variable representing the benefit to the recipient

Variable representing the cost to the actor

Contributes to personal reproduction

Additional reproduction by relatives made possible by an individual's actions

Natural selection that favors the spread of alleles that increase indirect fitness

Describes a hypothetical trait that allows the carrier to recognize others with the trait and behave altruistically to other carriers

Species in which females are diploid and males are haploid

Does haplodiploidy probably lead to eusociality?