Evolution III

The amount of _ an organism can obtain is finite, and biological processes take _

Natural selection favors _ of energy and time for optimal _

The fundamental differences among life histories concern differences in allocation of _

The _ theory of aging assumes irreparable damage to cells, but lack gen. variation to evolve late repair mechanisms

Natural selection should not be able to select for longer _

The _ theory of aging states that aging is caused by failure to competely repair cell damage, caused by tradeoffs between repair and _

The forces of natural selection _ later in life

Deleterious _ that affect traits expressed later in life can accumulate

Natural selection tends to favor early _ at the expense of repairing/maintaining cells

The Antagonistic _ Hypothesis states that natural selection tends to favor mutations that cause early _

A lower rate of ecological mortality corresponds with delayed _

A lower rate of _ mortality corresponds with delayed senescence

According to the Lack hypothesis, selection will favor a clutch size that produces the most _ offspring

Many bird species produce _ clutches than would be predicted by the Lack hypothesis

Salmon represent a tradeoff between egg _ and offspring _, producing _ between these two pressures

Life histories are not perfect, and need not be _

_ life histories may exist, because organisms lack time or genetic variation to evolve toward an optimum

Phylogenomics is based on evolutionary analysis of genome _, _ sequences, gene _ profiles, and other types of molecular data sets

DNA sequences that encode the information required for that sequence to be copied and moved to a new location in the genome

Transposable elements are more accurately characterized as genomic _

Transposable elements demonstrate that illustrate the principle that natural selection can act at the level of single _

Transposition events can sometimes result in the formation of new genes that serve a _ function in the organism

_ gene transfer occurs when transduction, transformation, plasmid transfer, or other processes result in a movement of genes between species

Lateral gene transfer occurs when _, _, _ transfer, or other processes result in a movement of genes between species

Lateral gene transfer has been rampant during the evolution of bacteria and _

In most cases, lateral gene transfer has allowed organisms to acquire the genes required for novel _ adaptations

Genomes are not cohesive collections of loci that contribute to individual fitness, instead they are riddled with selfish _

High TE in regions with high rates of _ result in high rates of abnormal _

TE's are more common in _ regions, where _ doesn't occur

TE is more common in _ near centromeres

Fungi with higher amounts of _ mutations have fewer TE's

TE stands for _

In plants and animals, decreased levels of _ leads to increased levels of TE

Methylation is used to _ genes

TE's can confer _ resistance among bacteria

TE's can lead to _ shuffling and the creation of new _

LINE stands for _

The TE encounters the LINE, which also has a _ tail, and causes the _ to be duplicated and inserted to a new location

_ gene transfer: the movement of genes between species

LGT stands for _

Lateral gene transfer is also called _ gene transfer

Mitochondria and chloroplasts are _ in origin, and arose from _ within eukaryotic cells

Mitochondria are descended from _

Chloroplasts are descended from _

All mitochondria, green plant chloroplasts, and red algae are the result of _ endosymbiosis

Chloroplasts of brown algae and diatoms are the result of _ endosymbiosis

Some endosymbiotic _ possess a _, or vestigial nucleus

After endosymbiosis, many bacterial genes are _ to the eukaryotic nucleus, for instance _ in plants, which enables the Calvin Cycle

Mitochondria enable _ respiration in eukaryotes

_% of the E. coli genome is the result of lateral gene transfer

Most LGT provides novel _ for the host cell

There is a strong correlation between the genes present a genome and the organism's _

Alleles and genes responsible for new traits are active _ in embryonic development

Genes shared across many species that are modified to produce variations of the same trait, or co-opted to form a new trait

_ genes arrange cells in 3-dimensional space and time, and specify the fate of cells

Homeotic loci in plants: the _ genes

Homeotic loci in animals: _ genes

Homeotic genes code for regulatory _ that control the _ of other genes

Homeotic genes define where cells are within the _, and control the overall _ of a body plan

The Hox genes occur in _, and show a perfect correlation between the _ order of genes along a chromosome

Hox genes show a perfect correlation between the _ to _ location of gene products in an embryo (called _)

Genes at the 3' end of the Hox complex are expressed _, and in _ quantity than genes at the 5' end

Each locus within the Hox complex contains a highly-conserved _ base pair sequence called the _

Hox genes predate the _ of animals

The number of Hox loci increased with the origin of _ animals, and the Hox complex has been _ several times in the vertebrate lineage

Duplication events of the Hox genes are associated with the origin on distinctive animal _

All arthropods have the same _ Hox genes, and morophological diversity arises from differential _

All tetrapods share the same basic features in _ development, which originates with the _ ridge or AER

Establishes the proximal-distal axis in tertrapod limb development

"Sonic Hedgehog" - establishes the anterior-posterior axis in tetrapod limb development

Establishes dorsal-ventral axis in tetrapod limb development

_ & Hox genes show later expression in anterior-distal parts of the tetrapod limb

Late expression of Shh and Hox results in evolutionary _ like hands and feet

Arthropod limbs are _ or _ appendages

The _ gene (anterior) and the _ gene (posterior) define the anterior-posterior axis in arthropod limb formation

The _ (Dll) controls the extending appendages primordia along the proximat-distal axis during arthropod limb devlopment

Change in Dll expression converts _ appendages to _ appendages

Dll is active in all animals with _; the limbs of vertebrates and arthropods are non-_, but dev. polarity process shares homologous _

The Hox- and MADS-box genes are not _; multicellularity arose _

Pathogens and their hosts are locked in a perpetual evolutionary _

Phylogenetic analysis helps us reconstruct the history of _ evolution, and understand mechanisms that create strains that cause _

Selection thinking helps us predict when pathogens will evolve _, and whether drug resistance will _ if drug use stops

Selection thinking suggests that symptoms such as fever may be _ facets of our immune response

Modern epidemics of _ and breast cancer may be the result of our exposure to novel _

Life may have begun only once, or or several times, only to be extinguished by the _ of Earth's water by _

The origins of life can be broken down into three stages: _ of the building blocks of life, assembly into a _, and advent of cellular _

The building blocks of life: _ acids, _, and simple _

_-based universal phylogenies have forced a dramatic revision of the fundamental _ of living things

_ gene transfer may have been so rampant during life's history that it will force us to give up the idea of a single last common _

Pandemic strains have novel _

The direction of _-jumping is revealed at the tips of phylogenetic trees

Host-jumping results in _ in the host that has never seen it

The harm done by a pathogen to its host during an infection

The trade-off hypothesis of virulence states that a viral strain _ its frequency if it sufficiently increases the chances of transmission

The short-sighted evolutionary hypothesis of virulence states that as the viral population increases, transmission _ (i.e. polio, HIV)

Diseases transmitted by direct contact tend to be _ virulent, and vector-borne diseases tend to be _ virulent

The most recent common ancestor to all living things

An RNA molecule with catalytic activity

Ribozymes link _ and _ in 1 molecule

Ribozymes act as an intermediate between DNA and _

The RNA world hypothesis lacks a _ RNA molecule

The _ hypothesis states that amino acids formed in deep space

The _ experiment in 1953 passed electric current through an experimental primitive atmosphere

The atmosphere in the Miller-Urey experiment was reducing, but there is evidence suggesting the early atmosphere was _

_ may also have been the origin of life; where a reducing temperature gradient forms acetic acid, linked to the citric acid cycle

The first stage of the Oparin-Haldane Model: assembly of simple molecules into building blocks of _

The second stage of the Oparin-Haldane Model: assembly of polymers that store information and _ reactions

The third stage of the Oparin-Haldane Model: adding _ and an energy source to make a living organism

_ are the oldest fossils linked to a known lineage, cyanobacteria

Prokarya are a _ group, not monophyletic. The characteristic of lacking a nucleus is a _

According to the Universal Gene Exchange Pool hypothesis, the LUCA wasn't a _, but a _ of readily-exchanged independent genes

According to the Ring of Life Hypothesis, Eucarya arose from the _ of a bacterium and an archaean, but this doesn't explain the _

According to the Chronocyte Hypothesis, a hypothetical _ with a cytoskeleton was _ by a eukaryote

According to the Three Virus Hypothesis, viruses are _ of early RNA and DNA organisms, and DNA was "_" by viruses against RNA host defense

Fossils can be _ remains, casts or _, unaltered remains, or _ left in the substrate

The fossil record is biased towards the preservation of _ organisms, and older fossils are rarer due to the _ of the earth's crust

The geologic time scale is defined by diagnostic _ of fossils, and the estimation of absolute dates from _

Fossils of _ fauna are the first evidence of animals, without any _ parts, and predominantly _ symmetry

The Cambrian Explosion was likely caused by _ diversity, rising _ levels, and the _ of the ediacaran fauna

The _ era was characterized by the gradual breakup of the supercontinent Pangea

Mass extinctions are defined by more than _% of species going extinct in less than _ million years

_% of all extinctions have occurred during the 5 mass extinction events, and the remaining _% are part of background extinction

Species with _ geographic ranges tend to last longer

The Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary is marked by a layer of _, shock _, and _

The K/T extinction was caused by a meteor _-_ km wide, which struck the Earth with an _ impact, creating the _ crater

Due to human influence, current rates of extinction are _-_ times higher than projected background extinction rates

The #1 cause of species loss currently is _ by humans

The conservation status of 1/3 of animal and plant species in North America is "_"

The tropics are home to roughly _% of all extant plant and animal species

Globally, _ million hectares of forest are lost per year, equal to the land area of _

Great apes and humans share enlarged _ and _ glands

Old-world monkeys and great apes split about _ million years ago

The common ancestor of humans, chimps, and gorillas existed about _ million years ago

Mt cytochrome oxidase II gene tree supports the hypothesis that humans are most closely related to _

The common ancestor of humans and chimps existed about _ million years ago

An ape fossil found in Chad from 6-7 MYA; unclear how it is related to modern humans and chimpanzees

An early genus of hominid from sub-Saharan Africa, from about 2.5 MYA

Australopithecines consisted of two subgroups: robust, and _

Genus of hominids existing 2.4 MYA to present, with large braincases and sophisticated tool-making abilities

The older, preferred name for Homo erectus

There is dispute over the _ of H. erectus and H. ergaster

According to the Multi-Regional hypothesis, _ occurred between various populationsofarchaic Homo, up until the present

According to the African Replacement hypothesis, H. erectus in Europe and Asia were _ by H. sapiens from Africa

Complete _ DNA phylogeny supports the assertion that the last common ancestor of all modern humans lived in Africa

African vs. non-African is the deepest genetic _ in the human population

Human populations in Africa have the most genetic _, all other populations are a _ of the total African allele diversity

Non-sub-Saharan Africans were found to have _-_% neanderthal genes, meaning modern humans experienced limited _ with neanderthals